Section Five: What is deviant overconformity and why is it often seen in organized sports?

Deviance is defined as behavior that departs significantly from the norms set for people in their social statuses. Within an athletic institution, with specific emphasis on the athletes, there are many different sets of rules and regulations that are embedded within the institution. There is a certain ethic that is characteristic to sport that is a cluster of norms that many people in power and performance sports have accepted and reaffirmed as the dominant criteria for defining "what it means to be an athlete", and to successfully claim that identity. Alike to any other institution or society, there is a large amount of deviant behaviour, and straying from the norms or rules. Deviant overconformity is something that is largely seen within the world of sports. Deviant overconformity can be described as behaviour that involves an uncritical acceptance of rules. There are many reasons why athletes engage in deviant overconformity. Athletes find their experiences in sports to be so exhilarating that they want to continue participating as long as possible. These athletes will do almost anything to stay involved in the game. The likelihood of being chosen or sponsored for continued participation in sports increases when athletes over-conform to the sports ethic. Often times, coaches will praise the athletes who engage in 'positive' deviance, and will view them as a model for the team. Being a part of a team or sport subculture involves having the respect of your peers. Over-conforming to the sports ethic is one of the best ways to do this. There are many examples of deviant overconformity in sports, including substance abuse, eating disorders, gambling, etc. The sports ethic involves four main norms: An athlete makes sacrifices for "the game", an athlete strives for distinction, an athlete accepts risks and plays through pain, and an athlete accepts no limits in the pursuit of possibilities. Because of the presence of this moral code of athleticism, athletes who over-conform to theses norms and commit deviant acts, aren't necessarily viewed as deviant. The four main norms of the sports ethic states that an athlete must make sacrifices for the game and accept risks, which can in turn, glorify the decisions that an athlete makes to behave in a deviant way. If an athlete decides they need to better their physical health in order to succeed in their sport, and decides to take performance enhancing drugs or along the way, develops an eating disorder in pursuit of becoming a larger asset to their team, according to the sports ethic, they are only fulfilling their duties as an athlete. The sports ethic does not specify the lengths to which an athlete should go in making sacrifices for their sport or their team. This is why deviance and deviant overconformity within the sports world is so prevalent.

Section Four: Sports are often used as vehicles for nation-building and nationalism. What are some examples and implications of this?

The industry of sports entertainment is among the biggest in the world, and makes up a very significant part of media, as well as culture. Because of the popularity and effect on society that sports has, sports are often used as vehicles for nation-building and nationalism. This is quite prevalent in the United States particularly. There are many different ways in which sports contain nationalistic content. One example is a nation's anthem or a patriotic song being sung at a sporting event. In professional sports including football, hockey, baseball, etc. it is quite common for the national anthem to be sung before the game begins. During the 1918 Boston vs. Chicago MLB World Series, the Star Spangled Banner was sung during the 7th inning stretch, for the first time. This game was during World War I and the song was sung to show support for the American troops fighting overseas. Since this event, there has been a direct correlation in the nationalism seen in sports and war and other political events. During the second world war, the Star Spangled Banner proceeded to be sung at all regular season baseball games, and not long after, all other sports followed suit and began to include the song in their games as well. Next, during the Vietnam war, the 1972 Superbowl was patriotically themed and the half-time show contained a military fly-over, as well as dancers dressed as 'Aunt Sam'. It was this same year that the NFL surpassed the MLB in becoming America's most popular sport. In 1991, during the Gulf War, there was also a large presence of patriotism in sports. The Superbowl that year was dedicated to the American troops, and each spectator was given an American flag to hold during the game. During the 1991 Superbowl, Whitney Houston sang the American national anthem, marking the first time that a celebrity sang an anthem at a sporting event. This is important because it symbolizes the growth of the spectacle that is a sporting event, as well as the dedication to patriotism and nationalism that is involved in these spectacles. After these events in 1991, organizations such as the NHL, NFL and NCAA, began to show their support to the troops by wearing American flags on their jerseys or helmets. Most recently, after the incidents on September 11th, 2001, there was an enormous portion of nationalism in sporting events. Many sporting events dedicated themselves to the victims and the troops involved in the war on terrorism i.e. The 2002 Superbowl. All of these occurrences are similar in their nature, but why are they significant? Nation building is the material and symbolic promotion of national unity used by those participating in projects of identity construction that focus on the nation. This is involved in sports not only because of the magnitude of the sports industry, but also because of the uniting spirit of sports. People come together to watch sporting events, and there is a passion that comes with being a fan of sports. This is why it is so effective to use sports as a vehicle for nation building and nationalism. If the same competition, passion, and dedication that lies within the sports community can be linked with a nation, then those feelings are linked with nation as well. Sports fans who are passionate about a game, in turn, share that passion for the nation. This is what creates the connection between patriotism and sports, and allows sports to be used as a propaganda tool.

Section Three: 67% of the players in the National Football League (NFL) are African American yet only 12% of head coaches are African American. Use class material to discuss this discrepancy.

African American people are considered to be what is referred to as an ethnic group. An ethnic group is a category of people regarded as socially distinct because they share a way of life and a commitment to the things that constitute that life. In most cases, and specifically in American sports, African Americans are also considered a minority group, a socially identified collection of people who experience discrimination, suffer social disadvantages, etc. In the NFL, 67% of the players are African American, while only 12% of the head coaches are African American. This discrepancy can be related to many potential causes. There is a race logic, a belief that there are important biological and cognitive differences between blacks and whites. There are many generalizations attributed to the success of African American athletes such as the idea that there is something genetically different between whites and blacks, giving blacks an advantage. Because of these generalizations, one could assume the possibility that there are more black players in the NFL than coaches, because African Americans are generally better suited to be athletes. A more sociological way of looking at this discrepancy could be to consider racial stacking. In sports, minority group members are assigned specific team roles, and are excluded from competing for other roles. Typically, the white players in a sports league are given the central positions, or the decision making roles. For example, in football, it is more common to see a white player be positioned as a quarterback than a black player. Whereas, the black players of any given sports league are typically given the peripheral positions, the positions involving a lot of running, jumping, and generally reactive roles (such as wide receiver, etc.) This, of course, has many consequences. It reinforces stereotypes such as white people are given the central roles because they are better at thinking, for example. This may apply to the position of coaching as well, which helps explain the absence of African American coaches in the NFL. Finally, one may argue that this statistic could be explained by social structure constraints. It is quite more common for a young, African American male to see his ethnic group represented in the media through the positions of athletes, rappers, etc. So, typically, he will then go on to view these celebrities as role-models, placing upon him the ambition to strive to become either a rapper, athlete, etc. Because there are not many African American coaches in professional sports, perhaps this causes their numbers to plateau, as not enough African Americans are being exposed to the possibility or the idea to seek a career as a coach. When considering race issues in sports, there are often very many discrepancies, and the ratio of African American players to coaches is only one of the many examples.

Section Two: Commercialization has resulted in major changes in sports. How has it changed the structure and goals of sports?

In modern day professional sports, there is a huge component of commercialization. The industry of sports has become more about generating and maintaining spectator interest, thus producing revenue. Money is made through ticket sales, merchandise, the selling of media rights, etc. Media coverage of sports has grown exponentially throughout the years, and has changed in programming material as well. Media coverage is now more widespread, and promotes and advertises sports. This can be done through promotional commercial advertisements, or even endorsements with large companies who sponsor sporting events. Because sports are more accessible through television and radio, the audience of sporting events is a larger variety. This means that it is no longer exclusively educated, "die-hard" fans who are watching a sporting event. Now, people of all ages, genders, nationalities, etc. are watching sports on television - and some of these people may not even be aware of the rules and regulations of the sports they are watching. Therefore, broadcasting companies must accommodate to these spectators by providing material such as instant replays, play by play commentating, and half-time shows. This type of material will be helpful to those who are not completely educated on the sport, and also gives the illusion of 'exclusiveness' that will continue to generate spectator interest. The broadening of media coverage in sports, and growth in audience has resulted in many changes in the structure and goals of sports. When such large amounts of money are being invested into sports, the programming must provide exciting material to obtain high viewing percentages, etc. Thus, rule changes are made to the games to generate more action, and make the game more understandable. As stated earlier, there is a greater presence of uneducated viewers of sports, and because of this lack of knowledge, these fans thrive on action and thrill for entertainment. Sports companies want to maximize dramatic moments and increase scoring chances within a game to provide the spectators with as much excitement as possible during their viewing experience. Also with these changes, sponsors and corporations have much more control over the sport, and often decisions are made within their interest. Most importantly with this transition in the world of sports, there has been a shift from aesthetic organization to heroic organization. What this means is, commercial sports are viewed as a form of entertainment. And what do people find entertaining? Action, excitement and heroically oriented material. This shift takes place to accommodate the mass audiences. Previously, in aesthetically oriented sports, there was a value of correct and proper form in athletics, whereas in modern sports, danger and excitement of movement is valued. Viewers want to see an athlete taking a risk; doing something requiring proper form in an improper or unorthodox way. Previously, there was an emphasis on mastery of technical skills. Contrary to this value, now there is an emphasis on dramatic expression and style. Fans want to see an athlete's willingness to go beyond the limits, rather than merely exploring the limits. Most importantly, in aesthetically oriented sports, there was a commitment to staying involved in the sport. But, with the commercialization of modern sports, an athlete's commitment is to the success of the sponsors.

Section One: The characteristics of total institutions are found in many contemporary sports formations. What are some of the potential consequences of this?

A total institution is a setting in which people are isolated from the rest of society and manipulated by administrative staff. There is supervision of all spheres of daily life and at atmosphere with standardized, rigid routines. Often, in a total institution, the members of said institution wear the same clothes, eat the same food, etc. which creates the idea that each of the members are equal. There is an erosion of individual identity thus leading to a systematic building of self. An example of this idea being applied to sports would be junior hockey in Canada. Playing for a junior hockey team involves a lot of commitment. Often, junior hockey players travel to a new town to play, live with a new family, go to a new school, obtain a new peer group, etc. There is a specific schedule and formal rules that govern each player's behaviour. Curfews are given to the players, there is a dress code in place while at the arena, team uniforms that dress each player alike, scheduled away games, scheduled home visits, etc. There is a sense of resocialization for the players. The players are "owned" by the team, there is an initiation  process, and the status of 'rookie' for newcomers to the team. There is a systematic building of a different self that is implemented while joining a junior hockey team. This is done through the giving of rewards for success, i.e. more ice time for playing well, etc. As well, there is punishment for bad behaviour. These are all characteristics of total institutions that can be found within junior hockey organizations. Total institutions can lead to what is called 'cognitive distortion'. Cognitive distortion is the inability to see behaviour considered inappropriate in other spheres of life as inappropriate within the total institution. This idea of cognitive distortion overcomes the voice of reason, or one's conscience. It overcomes the voice inside one's head that says 'This is wrong', and replaces it with an "internal disinhibitor". The internal disinhibitor is what gives the person in the total institution the "permission" to act inappropriately. Cognitive distortion is one of the dangers or consequences of total institutions. In simple terms, cognitive distortion is the overlooking of something that is considered 'deviant' in another social realm of life, because it is considered 'normal' or 'okay' inside the total institution. Within the world of sports, there are many deviant or inappropriate things that are overlooked due to cognitive distortion, that would be considered unsuitable in another given situation. Drug use is an example of a reoccurring phenomenon within sports. Using performance enhancing drugs is often something that is encouraged by trainers, etc. as a way to achieve success. Although this is wrong, and an athlete can be disqualified from a contest or cut from a team if tested positive for drugs, it is very often practiced regardless of these consequences. Another example could be sexual abuse. Sexual abuse in sports is quite common, and often, the victims of sports related sexual abuse cases don't speak up. Putting education secondary to playing sports is another example, which can include junior athletes putting school on hold to participate in sports, or college athletes with poor grades that are overlooked by coaches. These are just some of the many examples of the role cognitive distortion can play within sports institutions, all of which are embedded in the lifestyle that comes with athletic organizations.